Imagery, melody and gesture in cross-cultural perspective, in New Perspectives on Music and Gesture, eds. A frequently used teaching strategy involving the body in formal and informal music education is action demonstration and physical modeling (Metz, 1989; Campbell, 2001; Bremmer, 2015; Simones, 2017; Van den Dool, 2018). The types of action demonstration concerned blocking (repeated exposure to one concept at a time before the next) and interleaving (alternating among related skills e.g., between practicing scales, chords, and arpeggios). /Producer
Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Sport Pedagogy 24, 103116. Newell (2003) distinguishes between three broad categories of factors shaping or limiting behaviors: environmental constraints, organismic constraints, and task constraints. As such, music teaching and learning consists of an interactive experience in which both teacher and learner construct meaning through physical, verbal and musical behaviors (Simones, 2017). J. Again, gestures and movement can provide a solution as they can be used during music making to scaffold both technical, expressive and musical matters for learners (Van den Dool, 2018). To demonstrate this, we describe four types of bodily involvement: physical modeling, action demonstration, pedagogical gestures and touch. Philpott, C. (2001). Instrumental and vocal teachers most often value teaching strategies involving action demonstration and physical modeling (Zhukov, 2004; Millican Si, 2013; Nafisi, 2013b; Meissner and Timmers, 2019), believing they facilitate effective learning of musical skills (in opposition to verbal-only instructions), especially in function of developing an adequate body posture or grasping characteristics of a certain motion when playing an instrument or singing. Both amateur and professional musicians typically take music lessons, short private sessions with an individual teacher. (1992). Within instrumental and vocal music learning, environmental constraints are e.g., the acoustics of a room, or a peer group's musical preferences. Schiavio, A., and Van der Schyff, D. (2018). For example, while guiding the learner in learning a new piece of music, a teacher may highlight certain aspects of that piece through gestures e.g., visualizing a specific rhythm, thus helping the learner attune to a specific aspect of the music. Based on the principles of dynamical systems theory, a constraint-led approach to teaching and learning is being developed, most prominently within the field of physical education (Renshaw et al., 2010). Co-verbal gestures piano teachers employed were: deictic (pointing gestures), iconic (expressing images of objects or actions); metaphoric (expressing images of the abstract); and co-verbal beats (up-and-down movements of hand, arms or head). doi: 10.1177/0305735614545197, Sweller, J. Moving together: toward understanding the mechanisms of joint action. 14, 285230. An ecological approach to embodiment and cognition. (2003). (2009). Simones (2017) defines action demonstration as moments of turn taking where music teachers first show students how a particular physical action could be performed when performing music, without actively engaging students who are mostly listening and observing the teacher, and consequently imitate the teachers' model. A constraint-led approach to sport and physical education pedagogy, Phys. In his view, the mind is conceived as a coupled system interacting with the environment, whereby this coupling evolves over time as a function of a small number of variables. Even though research is starting to point toward the importance of the music teacher's body in instrumental and vocal education, questions still remain about a bodily-based pedagogy. M. Lesaffre, P. J. Maes, and M. Leman (New York, NY: Routledge), 4957. 29, 189200. For example, in an exploratory case study Simones et al. doi: 10.1080/10508406.2011.611446, Atencio, M., Yi, C. J., Clara, T. W. K., and Miriam, L. C. Y. Eduser - Revista De Educao, 10, 5072. Also, in an exploratory case study, Simones et al. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School. Gestures, in contrast to language, have the ability to represent these invisibilities and, therefore, can materialize meaning for the learner (Fatone et al., 2011). However, up till now, studies on teachers in instrumental and vocal education tend to focus on their verbal communication (Simones et al., 2015), demonstrating that language can play a constructive role in music teaching (e.g., Meissner and Timmers, 2019), but also has its drawbacks. This kind of information is relevant to know when music teachers consciously want to design-in constraints for their learners through the use of their body. An enactive and dynamical systems theory account of dyadic relationships. <<
The effect of real-time visual feedback on the training of expressive performance skills. in Paper presented at the 9th International Conference on Music Perception and Cognition (ICMPC9) (Bologna). As such, the emergence of functional relationships between the learner and learning environment can be facilitated through the teacher (Renshaw and Chow, 2019). Learning is moving in new ways: the ecological dynamics of mathematics education. As a body movement carrying an intention and/or a perceived meaning for the learner (Simones et al., 2015), pedagogical gestures are often used to represent music, or to attract the learner's attention to specific musical information (Bremmer, 2015), and can initiate a response or change in musical behavior (Kochman et al., 2014). Teacherstudent physical contact as an approach for teaching guitar in the master class context. Ennis, J. London, UK: Routledge. 8:72. doi: 10.3390/bs8080072, Schner, G. (2009). Secondly, music teachers can employ gestures such as musical beats gestures, conducting style gestures and musical gestures to direct the learner's attention to specific expressive or musical aspects in the music (Bamberger, 2013; Bremmer, 2015). For instance, in this article, we presented what a bodily-based pedagogy ideally could involve. From a dynamical systems perspective, learning is seen to be situated in dynamic contexts where the development of new knowledge and skills is the result of multiple interactions between learners and their learning environment (e.g., other learners, teacher, school system) over time (Chow et al., 2011). In the second part, we will specifically discuss how physical modeling, gestures and touch can act as constraints in instrumental and vocal music learning, facilitating the learning process in non-verbal ways (Bremmer, 2015; Simones et al., 2017; Zorzal and Lorenzo, 2019). LN from the perspective of instrumental music learning, complemented, and discussed and revised it. (2013). B., and Hollan, J. D. (2010). >>
Nafisi, J. 
J. Res. Steenbeek, H., and Van Geert, P. (2013). Hoppe, D., Brandmeyer, A., Sadakata, M., Timmers, R., and Desain, P. (2006). No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms. doi: 10.1080/10749030902721754. Yet, teacher's bodily engagement in instrumental and vocal education is scarcely addressed in music educational research studies. Abrahamson, D., and Snchez-Garca, R. P. (2016). From this perspective, learning processes are viewed as emerging from the learner's goal-oriented, situated, adaptive actions in the learning environment. In doing so, rather than focusing on rote physical actions or error prevention, teachers invite learners to move beyond what they must or must not do (Weddle and Hollan, 2010), by providing them with constraints that allow them to construct how to use affordances in a learning environment in flexible and variable ways (Marton and Pang, 2006; Renshaw and Chow, 2019). doi: 10.1111/j.1750-8606.2011.00194.x. Secondly, organismic constraints refer to the characteristics of an individual such as the physical structure of a person's hand, the level of perceptual, emotional and cognitive functioning, the degree a person is able to self-regulate and motivate, or the amount of muscle strength a person has developed (Renshaw and Chow, 2019). Learn. (2017) and Van den Dool (2018) show that action demonstration and physical modeling can serve to introduce different constraints, thereby facilitating the learning process in diverse ways. In summary, based on existing theoretical and empirical research, the article will present a first conceptualization of the role of the music teacher in instrumental and vocal education viewed from a dynamical systems approach. What is Music Pedagogy? New Ideas Psychol. /CreationDate (D:20060126204253-05'00')
doi: 10.1177/0255761411434501, Campbell, P. S. (2001). (2018). Washington, DC: National Academies Press. From this perspective, learning processes are viewed as emerging from the learner's goal-oriented, adaptive interactions in the learning environment (Abrahamson and Snchez-Garca, 2016; Schiavio and Van der Schyff, 2018). 
However, by giving insight in the way the teacher's bodily engagement can provide constraints for learners, a discussion can be initiated on how the instrumental and vocal teachers' verbalizations and body-based constraints can work together to implement effective teaching, learning and assessing strategies regarding instrumental and vocal education. (2015) found that piano teachers guided and supported learners in a Pre-grade 1 and Grade 1 group through touch: while touching learners' hands, they played piano with their learners' hands. Educ. 5, 260266. In general, the objective of a constraint-led approach to teaching is to optimize the learner's opportunities to develop cognitive or motoric skills that are both task appropriate and suited to the learner's organismic constraints (Abrahamson and Snchez-Garca, 2016). With music pedagogys evolution in the twentieth century, many distinctive approaches further developed or received refinement and new methods came to the fore. Unsafe suppositions? Melbourne: Monash University, Australia. 15, 193220. Music 43, 723735. Nonlinear pedagogy: learning design for self-organizing neurobiological systems. doi: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195300598.003.0002, Simones, L. L. (2017). Figure 1 presents an overview of the constraint-led approach to teaching and learning. McHugh-Grifa, A. When learning staccato, piano students showed greater learning outcomes though observations that were intercalated with students' immediate imitation of teachers' action demonstrations, in comparison to a block of observations followed by a block of imitations. Constraints can be defined as interventions blocking out an ineffective involvement with a task (Abrahamson et al., 2016), by limiting what learners can do and thus preventing them being overwhelmed by a task and, at the same time, by offering an openness to possibilities, aiding learners in finding a solution for a task (Hopper, 2012). Music teachers' pedagogical gestures can have different forms and meanings, depending on the age, instrument and voice, or genre being taught, and the social, cultural context in which the music teaching takes place (Fatone et al., 2011; Bremmer, 2015). Explaining after by before: basic aspects of a dynamic systems approach to the study of development. vygotsky zone lev development proximal theory learning scaffolding child quotes psychology theories zpd based educational language childhood early education social (2011). (2013b). <<
3, 289299. (2003). doi: 10.1080/10508406.2016.1143370, Alibali, M., and Nathan, M. J. While the study of Simones and colleagues shows that timing of an action demonstration is an important aspect of designing task constraints, Van Dool's study shows that the teacher's physical modeling can become an environmental constraint that supports the learner's band playing. (2019). This way of scaffolding, also well-known to conductors (Bonshor, 2014; Durrant and Varvarigou, 2015; Jansson et al., 2019), allows learners to experience the time-based character of music without language interfering (Bremmer, 2015). New York, NY: Routledge. When learners try something beyond what they know, this could heighten their emotional stress, perhaps hindering their learning process. 20, 244-263. doi: 10.1177/1356336X14524853, Aubin, D., and Dahan Dalmedico, A. Behav. Metaphors are projected constraints on action: an ecological dynamics view on learning across the disciplines, in Transforming Learning, Empowering Learners, Proceedings of the International Conference of the Learning Sciences (ICLS 2016), Vol. App. Cogn. Psychol. Alibali and Nathan (2011) note that in teacher education an emphasis is found on a language-based pedagogy. Zorzal, R., and Lorenzo, O. %PDF-1.4
Cutting across cultures on questions of music's transmission. For instance, in instrumental education, Simones et al. Social Psychology: Exploring the Dynamics of Human Experience. Newell, K. M. (2003). 23, 231249. Although constraint in colloquial language can have a negative connotation, within a constraint-led pedagogy it refers to the boundaries placed on an individual that shape or limited certain behaviors (Newell, 2003). 9, 16. Open Sports Sci. Sci. Time scales in motor learning and development. What might cognition be, if not computation?. In general, teachers' touch goes through their hands, and it might be continuous (e.g., lasting for a few seconds) or discrete (Zorzal and Lorenzo, 2019). 42, 856863. Haston, W. (2007). By sensitively observing their learners, teachers not only exaggerated but also altered the movement to be emulated (Bremmer, 2015). eds. Br. J. G. Welch, D. Howard and J. Nix (Oxford: Oxford University Press). The musical, expressive and technical information provided by the music teacher's body has the ability to facilitate learners in searching and exploring solutions and aid them to become perceptually attuned to relevant music information (Abrahamson and Snchez-Garca, 2016). (2014) found that singing teachers will employ musical or technical gestures during a vocal lesson, with or without linguistic support, to remind the learner of the initial concept being learned. Sci. doi: 10.4324/9780203888100. (Doctoral Dissertation). J. doi: 10.1111/j.1548-1433.2008.00026.x, Durrant, C., and Varvarigou, M. (2015). In instrumental and vocal music education, teachers commonly employ pedagogical gestures intuitively to accompany speech, music or music making to support the learning process (Fatone et al., 2011; Nafisi, 2013a; Kochman et al., 2014; Simones et al., 2015). Importantly, acting upon affordances is always linked to the learner's particular abilities (Hirose, 2002). However, research studies are only just starting to investigate whether or not a bodily-based pedagogy is more effective for teaching certain musical concepts and skills in comparison to language. Request a free trial to benefit from the RILM suite of resources. 29, 273339. Theoretical Models of Human Development, 6th ed. Sci. Touch, however, is not only applied to direct the learner's attention to the body, but it also allows teachers to receive haptic information about the learner's body (e.g., to feel the degree of tension in a body). Moving together while playing music: promoting involvement through student-centred collaborative practices, in Becoming Musicians Student Involvement and Teacher Collaboration in Higher Music Education, eds. Through joint action, both teacher and learner continually seek to enhance performance and to predict performance outcomes (Kochman et al., 2014). When learners are taken through specific motions through touch, they attend to relevant information, adjust their movements, and, in this way start to develop effective, new musical actions (Abrahamson et al., 2016). (2015) found that piano teachers employ gestures co-existing with music such as musical beats gestures (up and down movements of hands, arms, and/or head to denote the tempo or speed of music) or conducting style gestures (up and down movements of hands and arms with a rounder shape providing temporal but also expressive information about music) in their lessons. The learner can be prevented from being overwhelmed by the complexity of a task by the teacher's gestures that can channel the learner's attention toward certain information, thus limiting what the learner can give attention to (Abrahamson and Snchez-Garca, 2016). Movement as a musical response among preschool children. 21 Articles, This article is part of the Research Topic, Dynamical Systems Theory and Learning New Skills, A Constraint-led Approach to Teaching and Learning, Action Demonstration and Physical Modeling, Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). Teachers tended to apply touch to call the learner's attention to technical, muscular, postural issues, or to the size and shape of their fingernails. Change in motor learning: a coordination and control perspective. 4, 295312. From a constraint-led pedagogy perspective, the empirical studies of Simones et al. In this article, we will present a first step in conceptualizing the role of the music teacher's body in instrumental and vocal music education viewed from a dynamical systems theory perspective. As such it serves artistic, scholarly and didactic practice. Res. (2013a). Copyright 2020 Bremmer and Nijs. (2017), pedagogical gestures in instrumental and vocal lessons do not necessarily need to be imitated. Pers. Teachers play a significant role in that environment, due to the different types of constraints (e.g., environmental and task constraints) they can introduce to aid learners in finding a solution for a musical task. Within the scope of music educational research, few studies focus on embodiment and instrumental and vocal music education from the perspective of the learner (Nijs, 2017; Schiavio and Van der Schyff, 2018). Constraints-led approach and emergent learning: using complexity thinking to frame collectives in creative dance and inventing games as learning systems. This haptic information informs and enables a teacher to simultaneously guide, monitor, assess and adapt their touch to the needs of the learner (Weddle and Hollan, 2010; Bremmer, 2015). 29, 135144. Res. Development as change of system dynamics: stability, instability, and emergence, in Toward a Unified Theory of Development: Connectionism and Dynamic Systems Theory Re-Considered, eds. 1 0 obj
doi: 10.1207/S15326969ECO1502_5, Chow, J. Y., Davids, K., Hristovski, R., Arajo, D., and Passos, P. (2011). doi: 10.1080/14613808.2012.685462, Marton, F., and Pang, M. F. (2006). The Culture of Education. Math. Bresler, L. (2004). Rev. Music 47, 6982. Bruner, J. Kochman, K., Moelants, D., and Leman, M. (2014). Scaffolding imitation in capoeira: physical education and enculturation in an afro-brazilian art. 88, 358374. Phoniatr. doi: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199589838.001.0001. The goal of these kinds of demonstrations would be to provide students with an understanding of a movement that can be performed, for example, concerning the direction, intensity or the quality of the tone (Simones, 2017). 5, 7687. Sci. Professional perception and expert action: scaffolding embodied practices in professional education. Learn. The last decade, more and more empirical studies are conducted that investigate which types of pedagogical gestures music teachers use in instrumental and vocal music education, when they are used and which effect they generate in music learning (Fatone et al., 2011; Nafisi, 2013a,b; Kochman et al., 2014; Simones et al., 2015; Simones, 2017; Van den Dool, 2018). A Dynamic Systems Approach to the Development of Cognition and Action. Erasmus Universiteit Rotterdam, Netherlands. doi: 10.1177/002743210709300414, Hirose, N. (2002). Among them, the Kodly method named after Hungarys charismatic composer and pedagogue, eurhythmics developed by the Swiss musician and educator mile Jaques-Dalcroze, the Schulwerk of Carl Orff in Germany and the Suzuki method created by the Japanese violinist and pedagogue. Newell, K. M., Liu, Y. T., and Mayer-Kress, G. (2001). In a learning situation, the environmental, organismic and task constraints interact and configure in a certain way, determining a set of possible outcomes a learner is able to produce (Rosengren and Braswell, 2003; Schiavio and Van der Schyff, 2018). Psychol. Music 38, 403421. Applied to instrumental and vocal music education, this interactive aspect of action demonstration and physical modeling could imply that teachers and learners are dynamically interdependent on each other's responsive coordination, and together, could reach a close level of sensorimotor coordination by observing, anticipating and tracking each other's musical and expressive actions (Abrahamson and Snchez-Garca, 2016). 
Received: 30 November 2019; Accepted: 15 May 2020; Published: 18 June 2020. doi: 10.1177/0305735617737154, Keywords: instrumental and vocal music education, dynamical systems theory, constraint-led pedagogy, physical modeling, action demonstration, pedagogical gestures, touch, Citation: Bremmer M and Nijs L (2020) The Role of the Body in Instrumental and Vocal Music Pedagogy: A Dynamical Systems Theory Perspective on the Music Teacher's Bodily Engagement in Teaching and Learning. (2017) showed that action demonstration can be applied differently in piano lessons, leading to different learning outcomes. Twenty years and going strong: a dynamic systems revolution in motor and cognitive development. 
J. Res. Steenbeek, H., and Van Geert, P. (2013). Hoppe, D., Brandmeyer, A., Sadakata, M., Timmers, R., and Desain, P. (2006). No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms. doi: 10.1080/10749030902721754. Yet, teacher's bodily engagement in instrumental and vocal education is scarcely addressed in music educational research studies. Abrahamson, D., and Snchez-Garca, R. P. (2016). From this perspective, learning processes are viewed as emerging from the learner's goal-oriented, situated, adaptive actions in the learning environment. In doing so, rather than focusing on rote physical actions or error prevention, teachers invite learners to move beyond what they must or must not do (Weddle and Hollan, 2010), by providing them with constraints that allow them to construct how to use affordances in a learning environment in flexible and variable ways (Marton and Pang, 2006; Renshaw and Chow, 2019). doi: 10.1111/j.1750-8606.2011.00194.x. Secondly, organismic constraints refer to the characteristics of an individual such as the physical structure of a person's hand, the level of perceptual, emotional and cognitive functioning, the degree a person is able to self-regulate and motivate, or the amount of muscle strength a person has developed (Renshaw and Chow, 2019). Learn. (2017) and Van den Dool (2018) show that action demonstration and physical modeling can serve to introduce different constraints, thereby facilitating the learning process in diverse ways. In summary, based on existing theoretical and empirical research, the article will present a first conceptualization of the role of the music teacher in instrumental and vocal education viewed from a dynamical systems approach. What is Music Pedagogy? New Ideas Psychol. /CreationDate (D:20060126204253-05'00')
doi: 10.1177/0255761411434501, Campbell, P. S. (2001). (2018). Washington, DC: National Academies Press. From this perspective, learning processes are viewed as emerging from the learner's goal-oriented, adaptive interactions in the learning environment (Abrahamson and Snchez-Garca, 2016; Schiavio and Van der Schyff, 2018). However, by giving insight in the way the teacher's bodily engagement can provide constraints for learners, a discussion can be initiated on how the instrumental and vocal teachers' verbalizations and body-based constraints can work together to implement effective teaching, learning and assessing strategies regarding instrumental and vocal education. (2015) found that piano teachers guided and supported learners in a Pre-grade 1 and Grade 1 group through touch: while touching learners' hands, they played piano with their learners' hands. Educ. 5, 260266. In general, the objective of a constraint-led approach to teaching is to optimize the learner's opportunities to develop cognitive or motoric skills that are both task appropriate and suited to the learner's organismic constraints (Abrahamson and Snchez-Garca, 2016). With music pedagogys evolution in the twentieth century, many distinctive approaches further developed or received refinement and new methods came to the fore. Unsafe suppositions? Melbourne: Monash University, Australia. 15, 193220. Music 43, 723735. Nonlinear pedagogy: learning design for self-organizing neurobiological systems. doi: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195300598.003.0002, Simones, L. L. (2017). Figure 1 presents an overview of the constraint-led approach to teaching and learning. McHugh-Grifa, A. When learning staccato, piano students showed greater learning outcomes though observations that were intercalated with students' immediate imitation of teachers' action demonstrations, in comparison to a block of observations followed by a block of imitations. Constraints can be defined as interventions blocking out an ineffective involvement with a task (Abrahamson et al., 2016), by limiting what learners can do and thus preventing them being overwhelmed by a task and, at the same time, by offering an openness to possibilities, aiding learners in finding a solution for a task (Hopper, 2012). Music teachers' pedagogical gestures can have different forms and meanings, depending on the age, instrument and voice, or genre being taught, and the social, cultural context in which the music teaching takes place (Fatone et al., 2011; Bremmer, 2015). Explaining after by before: basic aspects of a dynamic systems approach to the study of development. vygotsky zone lev development proximal theory learning scaffolding child quotes psychology theories zpd based educational language childhood early education social (2011). (2013b). <<
3, 289299. (2003). doi: 10.1080/10508406.2016.1143370, Alibali, M., and Nathan, M. J. While the study of Simones and colleagues shows that timing of an action demonstration is an important aspect of designing task constraints, Van Dool's study shows that the teacher's physical modeling can become an environmental constraint that supports the learner's band playing. (2019). This way of scaffolding, also well-known to conductors (Bonshor, 2014; Durrant and Varvarigou, 2015; Jansson et al., 2019), allows learners to experience the time-based character of music without language interfering (Bremmer, 2015). New York, NY: Routledge. When learners try something beyond what they know, this could heighten their emotional stress, perhaps hindering their learning process. 20, 244-263. doi: 10.1177/1356336X14524853, Aubin, D., and Dahan Dalmedico, A. Behav. Metaphors are projected constraints on action: an ecological dynamics view on learning across the disciplines, in Transforming Learning, Empowering Learners, Proceedings of the International Conference of the Learning Sciences (ICLS 2016), Vol. App. Cogn. Psychol. Alibali and Nathan (2011) note that in teacher education an emphasis is found on a language-based pedagogy. Zorzal, R., and Lorenzo, O. %PDF-1.4
Cutting across cultures on questions of music's transmission. For instance, in instrumental education, Simones et al. Social Psychology: Exploring the Dynamics of Human Experience. Newell, K. M. (2003). 23, 231249. Although constraint in colloquial language can have a negative connotation, within a constraint-led pedagogy it refers to the boundaries placed on an individual that shape or limited certain behaviors (Newell, 2003). 9, 16. Open Sports Sci. Sci. Time scales in motor learning and development. What might cognition be, if not computation?. In general, teachers' touch goes through their hands, and it might be continuous (e.g., lasting for a few seconds) or discrete (Zorzal and Lorenzo, 2019). 42, 856863. Haston, W. (2007). By sensitively observing their learners, teachers not only exaggerated but also altered the movement to be emulated (Bremmer, 2015). eds. Br. J. G. Welch, D. Howard and J. Nix (Oxford: Oxford University Press). The musical, expressive and technical information provided by the music teacher's body has the ability to facilitate learners in searching and exploring solutions and aid them to become perceptually attuned to relevant music information (Abrahamson and Snchez-Garca, 2016). (2014) found that singing teachers will employ musical or technical gestures during a vocal lesson, with or without linguistic support, to remind the learner of the initial concept being learned. Sci. doi: 10.4324/9780203888100. (Doctoral Dissertation). J. doi: 10.1111/j.1548-1433.2008.00026.x, Durrant, C., and Varvarigou, M. (2015). In instrumental and vocal music education, teachers commonly employ pedagogical gestures intuitively to accompany speech, music or music making to support the learning process (Fatone et al., 2011; Nafisi, 2013a; Kochman et al., 2014; Simones et al., 2015). Importantly, acting upon affordances is always linked to the learner's particular abilities (Hirose, 2002). However, research studies are only just starting to investigate whether or not a bodily-based pedagogy is more effective for teaching certain musical concepts and skills in comparison to language. Request a free trial to benefit from the RILM suite of resources. 29, 273339. Theoretical Models of Human Development, 6th ed. Sci. Touch, however, is not only applied to direct the learner's attention to the body, but it also allows teachers to receive haptic information about the learner's body (e.g., to feel the degree of tension in a body). Moving together while playing music: promoting involvement through student-centred collaborative practices, in Becoming Musicians Student Involvement and Teacher Collaboration in Higher Music Education, eds. Through joint action, both teacher and learner continually seek to enhance performance and to predict performance outcomes (Kochman et al., 2014). When learners are taken through specific motions through touch, they attend to relevant information, adjust their movements, and, in this way start to develop effective, new musical actions (Abrahamson et al., 2016). (2015) found that piano teachers employ gestures co-existing with music such as musical beats gestures (up and down movements of hands, arms, and/or head to denote the tempo or speed of music) or conducting style gestures (up and down movements of hands and arms with a rounder shape providing temporal but also expressive information about music) in their lessons. The learner can be prevented from being overwhelmed by the complexity of a task by the teacher's gestures that can channel the learner's attention toward certain information, thus limiting what the learner can give attention to (Abrahamson and Snchez-Garca, 2016). Movement as a musical response among preschool children. 21 Articles, This article is part of the Research Topic, Dynamical Systems Theory and Learning New Skills, A Constraint-led Approach to Teaching and Learning, Action Demonstration and Physical Modeling, Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). Teachers tended to apply touch to call the learner's attention to technical, muscular, postural issues, or to the size and shape of their fingernails. Change in motor learning: a coordination and control perspective. 4, 295312. From a constraint-led pedagogy perspective, the empirical studies of Simones et al. In this article, we will present a first step in conceptualizing the role of the music teacher's body in instrumental and vocal music education viewed from a dynamical systems theory perspective. As such it serves artistic, scholarly and didactic practice. Res. (2013a). Copyright 2020 Bremmer and Nijs. (2017), pedagogical gestures in instrumental and vocal lessons do not necessarily need to be imitated. Pers. Teachers play a significant role in that environment, due to the different types of constraints (e.g., environmental and task constraints) they can introduce to aid learners in finding a solution for a musical task. Within the scope of music educational research, few studies focus on embodiment and instrumental and vocal music education from the perspective of the learner (Nijs, 2017; Schiavio and Van der Schyff, 2018). Constraints-led approach and emergent learning: using complexity thinking to frame collectives in creative dance and inventing games as learning systems. This haptic information informs and enables a teacher to simultaneously guide, monitor, assess and adapt their touch to the needs of the learner (Weddle and Hollan, 2010; Bremmer, 2015). 29, 135144. Res. Development as change of system dynamics: stability, instability, and emergence, in Toward a Unified Theory of Development: Connectionism and Dynamic Systems Theory Re-Considered, eds. 1 0 obj
doi: 10.1207/S15326969ECO1502_5, Chow, J. Y., Davids, K., Hristovski, R., Arajo, D., and Passos, P. (2011). doi: 10.1080/14613808.2012.685462, Marton, F., and Pang, M. F. (2006). The Culture of Education. Math. Bresler, L. (2004). Rev. Music 47, 6982. Bruner, J. Kochman, K., Moelants, D., and Leman, M. (2014). Scaffolding imitation in capoeira: physical education and enculturation in an afro-brazilian art. 88, 358374. Phoniatr. doi: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199589838.001.0001. The goal of these kinds of demonstrations would be to provide students with an understanding of a movement that can be performed, for example, concerning the direction, intensity or the quality of the tone (Simones, 2017). 5, 7687. Sci. Professional perception and expert action: scaffolding embodied practices in professional education. Learn. The last decade, more and more empirical studies are conducted that investigate which types of pedagogical gestures music teachers use in instrumental and vocal music education, when they are used and which effect they generate in music learning (Fatone et al., 2011; Nafisi, 2013a,b; Kochman et al., 2014; Simones et al., 2015; Simones, 2017; Van den Dool, 2018). A Dynamic Systems Approach to the Development of Cognition and Action. Erasmus Universiteit Rotterdam, Netherlands. doi: 10.1177/002743210709300414, Hirose, N. (2002). Among them, the Kodly method named after Hungarys charismatic composer and pedagogue, eurhythmics developed by the Swiss musician and educator mile Jaques-Dalcroze, the Schulwerk of Carl Orff in Germany and the Suzuki method created by the Japanese violinist and pedagogue. Newell, K. M., Liu, Y. T., and Mayer-Kress, G. (2001). In a learning situation, the environmental, organismic and task constraints interact and configure in a certain way, determining a set of possible outcomes a learner is able to produce (Rosengren and Braswell, 2003; Schiavio and Van der Schyff, 2018). Psychol. Music 38, 403421. Applied to instrumental and vocal music education, this interactive aspect of action demonstration and physical modeling could imply that teachers and learners are dynamically interdependent on each other's responsive coordination, and together, could reach a close level of sensorimotor coordination by observing, anticipating and tracking each other's musical and expressive actions (Abrahamson and Snchez-Garca, 2016). 
Received: 30 November 2019; Accepted: 15 May 2020; Published: 18 June 2020. doi: 10.1177/0305735617737154, Keywords: instrumental and vocal music education, dynamical systems theory, constraint-led pedagogy, physical modeling, action demonstration, pedagogical gestures, touch, Citation: Bremmer M and Nijs L (2020) The Role of the Body in Instrumental and Vocal Music Pedagogy: A Dynamical Systems Theory Perspective on the Music Teacher's Bodily Engagement in Teaching and Learning. (2017) showed that action demonstration can be applied differently in piano lessons, leading to different learning outcomes. Twenty years and going strong: a dynamic systems revolution in motor and cognitive development.